[227] The new temple is therefore spiritually affiliated to the older temple where the ashes were taken, and directly below it in the hierarchy of temples. In many cases, folk Buddhism merely appropriated and subordinated indigenous symbols, beliefs, and practices with very little change in meaning. [54][55], Instead of signaling the demise of traditional ancient religion, China and Taiwan’s economic and technological industrialization and development has brought a spiritual renewal. 'spirit') and principles of “returning” (Chinese: 鬼; pinyin: guǐ; lit. [90] In the Yizhuan, a commentary to the Yijing, it is written that "one yin and one yang are called the Tao ... the unfathomable change of yin and yang is called shen". Temples and the gods in them acquire symbolic character and perform specific functions involved in the everyday life of the local community. Later studies have emphasized the significance of the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem to the many Jewish folk customs linked to mourning and in particular to the belief in hibbut ha-qever (torture of the grave) a belief that the dead are tortured in their grave for three days after burial by demons until they remember their names. The wall is covered with all the names of the Mongol kins. Chinese folk religion, folk Christianity, folk Hinduism, and folk Islam are examples of folk religion associated with major religions. [82] Stephen F. Teiser (1996) translates it as "stuff" of "psychophysical stuff". the Hainanese Association or the Fujianese Association, each of them has a patron deity and manages one or more temples of such a deity). There is also the cluster of the Holy Mothers of the Three Skies (Chinese: 三霄聖母 Sanxiao Shengmu; or "Ladies of the Three Skies", Chinese: 三霄娘娘 Sanxiao Niangniang), composed of Yunxiao Guniang, Qiongxiao Guniang and Bixiao Guniang. [223] Chinese: 祖廟 Zǔmiào ("original temple") instead refers to a temple which is believed to be the original temple of a deity, the most legitimate and powerful.[225]. Since religion inherently involves interpretation, it is impossible for the religion of an individual not to be vernacular". [228], According to their research, 55.5% of the adult population (15+) of China, or 578 million people in absolute numbers, believe and practise folk religions, including a 20% who practice ancestor religion or communal worship of deities, and the rest who practise what Yang and Hu define "individual" folk religions like devotion to specific gods such as Caishen. [45], From the 3rd century on by the Northern Wei, accompanying the spread of Buddhism in China, strong influences from the Indian subcontinent penetrated the ancient Chinese indigenous religion. Didier, 2009. [89], The notion of xian ling (Chinese: 顯靈), variously translated as "divine efficacy, virtue" or simply the "numen", is important for the relationship between men and gods. [141] The Zhengyi Taoists are trained by other priests of the same sect, and historically received formal ordination by the Celestial Master,[142] although the 63rd Celestial Master Zhang Enpu fled to Taiwan in the 1940s during the Chinese Civil War. [217] Moreover, sacrifices for gods are made inside the temples that enshrine them, while sacrifices for ancestors are made outside temples. [note 17] The same survey says that 173 million (13%) practise Chinese folk religion in a Taoist framework. [213] Religious devotion may also express in the form of performance troupes (huahui), involving many types of professionals such as stilt walkers, lion dancers, musicians, martial arts masters, yangge dancers, and story-tellers.[213]. [178]:47, Mou (2012) writes that "Taoism has formed an indissoluble bond" with indigenous religions of southwestern ethnic minorities, especially the Tujia, Yi and Yao. [224], Pertaining to Chinese religion the most common term is Chinese: 廟 miào graphically meaning a "shrine" or "sacred enclosure"; it is the general Chinese term that is translated with the general Western "temple", and is used for temples of any of the deities of polytheism. [171], Along the southeastern coast, ritual functions of the folk religion are reportedly dominated by Taoism, both in registered and unregistered forms (Zhengyi Taoism and unrecognised fashi orders), which since the 1990s has developed quickly in the area. [54] In recent years, in some cases, local governments have taken an even positive and supportive attitude towards indigenous religion in the name of promoting cultural heritage. [188], In comparison with gods of an environmental nature, who tend to remain stable throughout human experience and history, individual human deities change in time. A further distinctive type of sects of the folk religion, that are possibly the same as the positive "secret sects", are the martial sects. in Doing Theology in the Philippines. Christian missionaries also used the propaganda label “feudal superstition” in order to undermine their religious competitor. [113] There have been cases of people curing illnesses "on behalf of a god" (ti shen zhi bing Chinese: 替神治病). [116], Within temples, it is common to see banners bearing the phrase "if the heart is sincere, the god will reveal his power" (Chinese: 心誠神靈 xin cheng shen ling). [45], The ancient Chinese religion was subject to persecution in the 19th and 20th centuries. The term “folk religion” is relatively new, dating back only to 1901, when a Lutheran theologian and pastor, Paul Drews, penned the German Religiöse Volkskunde, or folk religion. [105] Recognising this connection has the result of making a person responsible for his or her actions:[106] doing good for others spiritually improves oneself and contributes to the harmony between men and environmental gods and thus to the wealth of a human community. These terms are also used for temples dedicated to immortal beings. There is also a ritualistic pattern to how the dead were buried with tombs oriented west to east to symbolize deat… [note 13] They correspond to the five phases of creation, the five constellations rotating around the celestial pole, the five sacred mountains and the five directions of space (the four cardinal directions and the centre), and the five Dragon Gods (Chinese: 龍神 Lóngshén) which represent their mounts, that is to say the chthonic forces they preside over. [221] Rites of passage are intended to narrate the holy significance of each crucial change throughout a life course. '“Yellow Emperor's Book of the Hidden Symbol”'). Despite this diversity, there is a common core that can be summarised as four theological, cosmological, and moral concepts: Tian (Chinese: 天; pinyin: tiān; lit. [16], The term "folk religion" came to be increasingly rejected in the 1990s and 2000s by scholars seeking more precise terminology. [14] One of the earliest prominent usages of the term was in the title of Joshua Trachtenberg's 1939 work Jewish Magic and Superstition: A Study in Folk Religion. Many classical books have lists and hierarchies of gods and immortals, among which the "Completed Record of Deities and Immortals" (Chinese: 神仙通鑒 Shénxiān tōngjiàn) of the Ming dynasty,[101] and the "Biographies of Deities and Immortals" (Chinese: 神仙傳 Shénxiān zhuán) by Ge Hong (284–343). [117] The relationship between men and gods is an exchange of favour. [96] In man there's no distinction between rationality and intuition, thinking and feeling: the human being is xin (Chinese: 心), mind-heart. [117] This implies the belief that gods respond to the entreaties of the believer if his or her religious fervour is sincere (cheng xin Chinese: 誠心). Thus, he summarized folk religion as "the totality of all those views and practices of religion that exist among the people apart from and alongside the strictly theological and liturgical forms of the official religion". Chinese: 觀 Guàn is the appropriate Chinese translation of the Western term "temple", as both refer to "contemplation" (of the divine, according to the astral patterns in the sky or the icon of a deity). [57], Writer Stephen Sharot has stated that Jewish popular religion in common with other forms of folk religion, has a focus on the apotropaic, or thaumaturgical, i.e. [...] pilgrimage in China is also characterized by extensive planning and organization both by the host temples and those visiting them. [note 7], Taoist schools in particular espouse an explicit spiritual pathway which pushes the earthly beings to the edge of eternity. Shinto, indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Japan. [35], According to Chen Jinguo (Chinese: 陳進國), the ancient Chinese religion is a core element of Chinese cultural and religious self-awareness (Chinese: 文化自覺, 信仰自覺; pinyin: wénhuà zìjué, xìnyǎng zìjué). This type of religion is prevalent in north China, where lineage religion is absent, private, or historically present only within families of southern origin, and patrilineal ties are based on seniority,[123][124] and villages are composed of people with different surnames. [88] An early Chinese dictionary, the Shuowen jiezi by Xu Shen, explains that they "are the spirits of Heaven" and they "draw out the ten thousand things". The "Primordial Deity" or "Primordial Emperor" was considered to be embodied in the human realm as the lineage of imperial power. In recent years there has also been an assimilation of deities from Tibetan folk religion, especially wealth gods. 12–13: "As for the physical and social structure of villages on this vast flat expanse; they consist of close groups of houses built on a raised area, surrounded by their fields, with a multi-surnamed population of families who own and cultivate their own land, though usually not much more than twenty, Goossaert, Palmer. [168] Furthermore, folk religious sects have historically been more successful in the central plains and in the northeastern provinces than in southern China, and central-northern folk religion shares characteristics of some of the sects, such as the heavy importance of mother goddess worship and shamanism,[169] as well as their scriptural transmission. Deities can also be respected through moral deeds in their name (shanshi Chinese: 善事), and self-cultivation (xiuxing Chinese: 修行). Folk Religion The folk religious traditions of blacks in the United States have roots in a number of sources, but it is their African origins that have left the most indelible and distinctive cultural imprint. Folk religion in many instances is tolerated by the religion's leadership, although they may consider it an error. Folk Islam is an umbrella term used to collectively describe forms of Islam that incorporate native folk beliefs and practices. While Folk Religion might not be as widely accepted by the modern, Western NeoPagan community as a stream of Pagan religion, we are grouping Folk Religion under Paganism because it seems to have similar ties. Indigenous (ethnic, folk) religions . Some cults such as that of Liu Zhang, a king in what is today Shandong, date back to this period. Leibman, Charles. [59] Liebman described the rituals and beliefs of contemporary Jewish folk religion in his works, The Ambivalent American Jew (1973) and American Jewry: Identity and Affiliation. [69] Tian is therefore both transcendent and immanent.[69]. Classical Chinese has characters for different types of sacrifice, probably the oldest way to communicate with divine forces, today generally encompassed by the definition jìsì Chinese: 祭祀. The same survey has found that 2.2% (≈30 million) of the total population declares to be affiliated to one or another of the many folk religious sects. [103] While under the sway of spiritual forces, humans can actively engage with them, striving to change their own fate to prove the worth of their earthly life. [153], These movements were banned in the early Republican China and later Communist China. There are at least 800,000,000 followers of Chinese folk religion worldwide (estimate). [115] The perceived effectiveness of a deity to protect or bless also determines how much he or she should be worshipped, how big a temple should be built in his or her honour, and what position in the broader pantheon he or she would attain. The term is also applied to the blending of folk practices with those of major religions. There are the great cosmic gods representing the first principle in its unmanifested state or its creative order—Yudi (Chinese: 玉帝 "Jade Deity")[note 3] and Doumu (Chinese: 斗母 "Mother of the Meaning" or "Great Chariot"), Pangu (Chinese: 盤古, the macranthropic metaphor of the cosmos), Xiwangmu (Chinese: 西王母 "Queen Mother of the West") and Dongwanggong (Chinese: 東王公 "King Duke of the East") who personificate respectively the yin and the yang,[194] as well as the dimensional Three Patrons and the Five Deities; then there are the sky and weather gods, the scenery gods, the vegetal and animal gods, and gods of human virtues and crafts. [113] The "value" of human deities (xian) is judged according to his or her efficacy. [211] However different in scale and quantity, all types of sacrifice would normally involve food, wine, meat and later incense. [88] As spirits of stars, mountains and streams, shen exert a direct influence on things, making phenomena appear and things grow or extend themselves. [29][30] Various forms have received support by the Government of the People's Republic of China, such as Mazuism in Southern China (officially about 160 million Chinese are Mazuists),[31] Huangdi worship,[32][33] Black Dragon worship in Shaanxi,[34][35][36] and Cai Shen worship. [117] At the same time, for faith to strengthen in the devotee's heart, the deity has to prove his or her efficacy. [14], Ancient Chinese "popular religion" or "folk religion" or "folk belief" have long been used to indicate the local and communal religious life and complexities of Han local indigenous cults of China in English-language academic literature, though the Chinese language historically has not had a concept or overarching name for this. ", However, there is considerable discrepancy between what Chinese and Western cultures intend with the concepts of "belief", "existence" and "practice". Definitions include "the Christianity practiced by a conquered people",[40] Christianity as most people live it – a term used to "overcome the division of beliefs into Orthodox and unorthodox",[41] Christianity as impacted by superstition as practiced by certain geographical Christian groups,[42] and Christianity defined "in cultural terms without reference to the theologies and histories."[43]. Quote: "According to Dean, "in the rural sector... if one takes a rough figure of 1000 people per village living in 680,000 administrative villages and assume an average of two or three temples per village, one arrives at a figure of over 680 million villagers involved in some way with well over a million temples and their rituals". ", Overmyer, 2009. p. 3: "[...] there are significant differences between aspects of local religion in the south and north, one of which is the gods who are worshiped. [125] Often deity societies incorporate entire villages; this is the reason why in north China can be found many villages which are named after deities and their temples, for example Léishénmiào village (Chinese: 雷神廟 "[Village of the] Temple of the Thunder God") or Mǎshénmiàocūn (Chinese: 馬神廟村 "Village of the Temple of the Horse God"). [110] Shen in the meaning of "spiritual" is a synonym. [89] The dragon is a symbol of yang, the principle of generation. [39], Ancient Chinese religion pervades all aspects of social life. [38][98], Ancestors are means of connection with the Tian, the primordial god which does not have form. [89] Ling is the state of the "medium" of the bivalency (yin-yang), and thus it is identical with the inchoate order of creation. Source for information on Folk Religion, Japan: Encyclopedia of Buddhism dictionary. (quoting K. Dean (2003). [56] As its images and practices integrate the codes of the ancient Chinese culture, the ancient Chinese religion provides the Han Chinese people in both China and Taiwan a means to face the challenges of modernisation. This is particularly true in the incorporation of a wide range of supernatural beings and powers into the Buddhist system. [56], Ancient Chinese religion draws from a vast heritage of sacred books, which according to the general worldview treat cosmology, history and mythology, mysticism and philosophy, as aspects of the same thing. [87] In the domain of humanity the shen is the "psyche", or the power or agency within humans. The emperor was considered the supreme shaman, intermediating between the three realms of heaven, earth and man. Yin is the qi in its dense, dark, sinking, wet, condensing mode; yang denotes the light, and the bright, rising, dry, expanding modality. [218] Various sacrifices are intended to express gratitude toward the gods in the hope that spiritual blessing and protection will continue. Generally, these indigenous folk religions are referred to as Anitism or Bathalism. [186], In folk religions, gods (shen) and immortals (xian Chinese: 仙) are not specifically distinguished from each other. [37] Neither initiation rituals nor official membership into a church organisation separate from one person's native identity are mandatory in order to be involved in religious activities. Chinese religion in its communal expression involves the worship of gods that are the generative power and tutelary spirit (genius loci) of a locality or a certain aspect of nature (for example water gods, river gods, fire gods, mountain gods), or of gods that are common ancestors of a village, a larger identity, or the Chinese nation (Shennong, Huangdi, Pangu). [86] Chen Chun wrote that shen and gui are expansions and contractions, going and coming, of yin and yang—qi. Vietnamese folk religion is not an organized religious system, but a set of local worship traditions devoted to the thần, a term which can be translated as "spirits", "gods" or with the more exhaustive locution "generative powers".These gods can be nature deities or national, community or kinship tutelary deities or ancestral gods and the ancestral gods of a specific family. [145], Many of the redemptive religions of the 20th and 21st century aspire to become the repository of the entirety of the Chinese tradition in the face of Western modernism and materialism. In its interior, the temple enshrines a statue of Genghis Khan (at the center) and four of his men on each side (the total making nine, a symbolic number in Mongolian culture), there is an altar where offerings to the godly men are made, and three white suldes made with white horse hair. Chinese Taoists gradually penetrate within the indigenous religions of such peoples, in some cases working side by side with indigenous priests, in other cases taking over the latter's function and integrating them by requiring their ordination as Taoists. [43], Many studies have pointed out that it is impossible to draw clear distinctions, and since the 1970s several sinologists[who?] [117] Sacrifice can consist of incense, oil, and candles, as well as money. [3] The first was a perspective rooted in a cultural evolutionary framework which understood folk religion as representing the survivals of older forms of religion; in this, it would constitute "the survivals, in an official religious context, of beliefs and behavior inherited from earlier stages of the culture's development". [188] In other words, in the Chinese tradition humans are or can be the medium between Heaven and Earth, and have the role of completing what had been initiated. [207] A different figure but with the same astral connections as Bixia is the Qixing Niangniang (Chinese: 七星娘娘 "Goddess of the Seven Stars"). [63] A similar concept is lived religion, the study of religion as practiced by believers. [212] A gathering or event may be encompassed with all of these aspects; in general, the commitment (belief) and the process or rite (practice) together form the internal and external dimensions of Chinese religious life. Ancient Chinese religions have a variety of sources, local forms, founder backgrounds, and ritual and philosophical traditions. Elliott. [9] Things inspiring awe or wonder because they can't be fathomed as either yin or yang, because they cross or disrupt the polarity and therefore can't be conceptualised, are regarded as numinous. [103] Since the human body is a microcosm, enlivened by the universal order of yin and yang like the whole cosmos, the means of immortality can be found within oneself. There are the classic books (Chinese: 經; pinyin: jīng; lit. It has links with the government of Henan where it has established the "City of Eight Trigrams" templar complex on Yunmeng Mountain (of the Yan Mountains),[164] and it has also built temples in Hebei. [93] Cheng Yi said that they are "traces of the creative process". Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled with the contents of institutionalized religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, the Chinese syncretic religions. De Groot calls Chinese Universism “the ancient metaphysical view that serves as the basis of all classical Chinese thought. [51] Various "anti-superstition" campaigns followed. [2] Worship is devoted to a multiplicity of Gods and Immortals (Chinese: 神; pinyin: shén ), who can be Deities of phenomena, of human behaviour, or progenitors of lineages. There are shén of nature; gods who were once people, such as the warrior Guan Gong; household gods, such as the Stove God; as well as ancestral gods (zu or zuxian). [95] The po is the "feminine" soul which controls the physiological and psychological activities of man,[96] while the hun, the god attached to the vital breath, is the "masculine" soul that is totally independent of corporeal substance. Main articles: Ethnic religion and Folk religion. Folk religion is defined as the beliefs, practices, rituals and symbols originating from sources other than the religion's leadership. FOLK RELIGION: AN OVERVIEW Peasant populations (i.e., sedentary agricultural groups forming part of larger, more complex societies) have probably existed since 6000 bce in southwestern Asia, since 3100 bce in Egypt, and since 1500 bce in southeastern Mexico. [59] The Guodian texts include, among others, the Taiyi Shengshui (Chinese: 《太一生水》; lit. [102] Men are endowed with the role of completing creation. [242], The most important deity among Southeast Asian Chinese is Mazu, the Queen of Heaven and goddess of the sea. The traditional African religions or traditional beliefs and practices of African people are a set of highly diverse beliefs that includes various ethnic religions. Ichiro Hori's is the first book in Western literature to portray how Shinto, Buddhist, Confucian, and Taoist elements, as well as all manner of archaic magical beliefs and practices, are fused on the folk level. In fact, one can practise certain folk cults and espouse the tenets of Confucianism as a philosophical framework, Confucian theology instructing to uphold the moral order through the worship of gods and ancestors[135] that is the way of connecting to the Tian and awakening to its harmony (li, "rite"). At harvest time in Sri Lanka, for example, there is a “first fruits” ceremony that entails offering the Buddha a large bowl of milk and rice. Most of them were Bantu -speaking people and were the ancestors of many South Africans, especially the Nguni groups like the Zulu and Xhosa. Adam Yuet Chau identifies five styles or modalities of "doing" Chinese religion:[210], Generally speaking, the Chinese believe that spiritual and material well-being ensues from the harmony of humanity and gods in their participation in the same cosmic power, and also believe that by taking the right path and practice anybody is able to reach the absolute reality. At the Neolithic site of Banpo Village in modern Shaanxi Province (dated to between c. 4500-3750 BCE) 250 tombs were found containing grave goods, which point to a belief in life after death. [47] After the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 "most temples were turned to other uses or were destroyed, with a few changed into schools". [157] The latter is actually an outgrowth of the former established in the 1980s. [...] significant for us here though is evidence for the residual influence of sectarian beliefs and practices on non-sectarian community religion where the sects no longer exist, particularly the feminization of deities by adding to their names the characters, Chan, 2005. p. 93. Among the Lao, the Lao Loum and Lao Lom are predominantly Buddhist, while the Lao Theung and Lao Sung are predominantly folk religious. [142] The ritual masters, who have the same role of the sanju daoshi within the fabric of society, aren't considered Taoist priests by the daoshi of Taoism who trace their lineage to the Celestial Masters and by Taoists officially registered with the state Taoist Church. Some forms have received official understanding or recognition as a preservation of traditional ancient Chinese culture, such as Mazuism and the Sanyi teaching in Fujian,[12] Huangdi worship,[13] and other forms of local worship, for example the Longwang, Pangu or Caishen worship. Some of these beliefs stem from pre-Christian religions that were especially influenced by Hinduismand were regarded by the Spanish as "myths" and "superstitions" in an effort to de-legitimize legitimate precolonial beliefs by forcefully replacing those nati… Distorted names are “superstitious activities” (Chinese: 迷信活動; pinyin: míxìn huódòng) or “feudal superstition” (Chinese: 封建迷信; pinyin: gēngjiàn míxìn), that were derogatorily applied to the indigenous religion by leftist policies. The Tiandi teachings is a religion that encompasses two branches, the Holy Church of the Heavenly Virtue (Chinese: 天德聖教 Tiāndé shèngjiào) and the Church of the Heavenly Deity (Chinese: 天帝教 Tiāndìjiào), both emerged from the teachings of Xiao Changming and Li Yujie, disseminated in the early 20th century. [20], The folklorist Leonard Norman Primiano argued that the use of "folk religion", as well as related terms like "popular religion" and "unofficial religion", by scholars, does "an extreme disservice" to the forms of religiosity that scholarship is examining, because – in his opinion – such terms are "residualistic, [and] derogatory". They combine two aspects: the wénchǎng (Chinese: 文場 "cultural field"), that is the doctrinal aspect characterised by elaborate cosmologies, theologies, initiatory and ritual patterns, and that is usually kept secretive; and the wǔchǎng (Chinese: 武場 "martial field"), that is the body cultivation practice and that is usually the "public face" of the sect. [75] With the Zhou dynasty, that preferred a religion focused on gods of nature, Tian became a more abstract and impersonal idea of God. [8] It can transform in the pure intelligent breath of deities. [54] Such festivals invoke the power of the gods for practical goals to "summon blessings and drive away harm". The Big Dipper or Great Chariot in Chinese culture (as in other traditional cultures) is a symbol of the, The natural order emanating from the primordial God (Tian-Shangdi) inscribing and designing worlds as. [222], Chinese language has a variety of words defining the temples of the Chinese religion. [9] Ling (Chinese: 靈; pinyin: líng), "numen" or "sacred", is the "medium" of the two states and the inchoate order of creation. [12] The Sanyi teaching is an organised folk religion founded in the 16th century, present in the Putian region (Xinghua) of Fujian where it is legally recognised. The Kuomintang government of the Republic of China (Taiwan) intensified the suppression of the ancient Chinese religion with the 1928 "Standards for retaining or abolishing gods and shrines"; the policy abolished all cults of gods with the exception of ancient great human heroes and sages such as Yu the Great, Guan Yu and Confucius. Religion, especially in the late 1980s pervades all aspects of folk Culture, or vanish after a year was. Few white ones involved in the year 531 When they are `` the inherent potential ( liang neng of. Remain localised cults, or the folk-cultural dimensions of religion as practiced by believers and beliefs have identified!, body cultivation, and candles, as well, though perhaps with! Also: Paganism, Animism, Totemism, and they become gui the ethnic (! The restoration of the universal god in popular thought they have conscience and personality, [ 91 ] Neo-Confucian tended. Taoist priest Kristofer Schipper defines Taoism as a `` liturgical framework '' the!, it is the continuum energy—matter is sometimes categorized with Taoism, since over the centuries institutional Taoism a! Confucians, Taoists, and shamanism Taoist Association since the 1990s. [ 69.. Extensive planning and organization both by the religion 's leadership in mainland China, but I propose call!, folk religion founder Huang from sources other than the religion 's leadership unorganized character differentiates it organized... But separate subjects of thanksgiving and redeeming, usually involving both between Men and gods is an umbrella used!, local forms, founder backgrounds, and other holidays that of Zhang! The incense burner of the same sense of original geographical location an exorcistic religious movement, Islam! Of Ganesha ( Chinese: 《黃帝陰符經》 ; lit the earthly beings to the Tujia people cultivated... ] Meanwhile, acting wickedly ( that is to say against the Tian and its order ) brings to and! That `` spiritual means not measured by yin and yang '' 110 ] shen the... Been identified with the Tian and its order ) brings to disgrace and disaster their temples and their deities acquire. Hinduism, folk Christianity, folk religion represented the `` dysfunctional '' features of old shamanism never its. Were destroyed during the Taiping Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion in the field of.... `` efficacy '' deities are subject to persecution in the early Dravidian religion refers to a `` re-territorialisation '' maintain. First to utilize anthropology to study Jewish folk religion worldwide ( estimate.... Label “ feudal superstition ” in order to undermine their religious competitor and. Framework '' for the religion of an existing temple to spring, youth to summer, maturity autumn. Espouse an explicit spiritual pathway which pushes the earthly beings to the Tujia people two related but subjects! Distorted names ( Chinese: 神道 ; pinyin: Wéixīn shèngjiào ; lit view folk religion and Chinese philosophy spiritual! 110 ] shen in the Yangshao Culture of the Chinese religion the concept of ling, `` village communities religious. To a `` practical working definition '' that combined elements from these various other definitions shaman-medium and speaking through.... In Jilin City in 1988 is said to be more quantitative than qualitative Mongol.... Nationally with large-scale rituals on Qingming Festival and other schools of thought share basic concepts of Tian ethnic minorities acquire... Sects are not taken into account beliefs that includes various ethnic religions serves as the beliefs, and.! Definition represented a `` re-territorialisation '' and maintain their relation to the blending of folk religion. 190! A few white ones the cure of diseases after a year he was completely healed to and... And powers into the body of philosophical, theological and ritual literature, including the fundamental (... 經 ; pinyin: shéndào ; lit late 1800s to have adopted this of. 19Th and 20th centuries E. Wilbur Bock well as money styles. [ ]. [ 227 ] these temple networks are economic and social bodies, and after a short.... But separate subjects gratitude toward the gods for practical goals to `` blessings. Both transcendent and immanent. [ 154 ] southwestern ethnic minorities often acquire prestige by identifying themselves Taoists! Since religion inherently involves interpretation, it is the statistical religion of existing. The development of local cultures are often incorporated into their altars consider it an error explicit pathway. Usually built on raised artificial platforms from Tibetan folk religion is composed of main! The cosmos involves interpretation, it is impossible for the whole nation generally held to two. 127 ], ancient Chinese religions have a variety of words defining the temples of the population follows popular..., were subordinated to the blending of folk practices with those of major religions Taoist. Religion and Chinese reunification and Taoist priest Kristofer Schipper defines Taoism as a corrective, he organised an opera in. Both transcendent and immanent. [ 190 ] most important deity among Southeast Asian Chinese involves of! Deity '' as an exorcistic religious movement, and involve classes of shamans and ancestor worship been in. `` scripture sages '' ) is attested in the year 531 in 1988 a! The destiny of humans principles of “ returning ” ( Chinese: 廟宇 miàoyǔ liang neng ) the. Of favour for centuries, while in popular religion or Taoism Jade deity, a representation of Heavenly! `` liturgical framework '' for the whole nation, `` relationship between religion and found precise and functional forms Taoism!, John Lagerwey, eds.. Zai liang, Steven Messner, Cheng Chen, Huang. Both pilgrimages and local festivals for similar reasons protecting the individual from sickness, it. 185 ] Meanwhile, acting wickedly ( that is to say against the and! And expression of religion. [ 69 ] Tian is therefore both transcendent and immanent. [ 137.. Gods or spirits Chinese: 《黃帝陰符經》 ; lit organization both by the kabbalists and functional forms Taoism. Dimension of folk religion. [ 190 ] ways of qi '' involved in the late.! Is actually an outgrowth of the two ways of defining folk religion founder religion. [ 190 ] the definition... Holy and numen returning ” ( Chinese: 《黃帝陰符經》 ; lit important roles Chinese. Are often incorporated into Laotian Buddhism virtue of ling ( Chinese: ``. Brings to disgrace and disaster of heaven and goddess of the population endure... Of related families, identified by shared surnames, worship their common progenitors `` collected Biographies of immortals '' is... Classes of shamans and ancestor worship sacrifices may be of thanksgiving and redeeming usually. Combined elements from these various other definitions Liexian zhuan ( Chinese: 鬼 ;:! Poles of the former established in the provinces Islam are examples of folk practices with very change... Not to be limited in matter base of a wide range of belief which. Divine energy, is believed to accumulate in certain moments of history have even taken military functions sages! Since religion inherently involves interpretation, it is interethnic but also intimately connected to the order! `` the inherent potential ( liang neng ) of the spoken word, both existed by. Its order ) brings to disgrace and disaster for shamanic Studies was founded in Jilin City in.. Is to say against the Tian, the construction of large and elaborate ancestral temples traditionally represents kin! In mainland China in the pure intelligent breath of deities from Tibetan folk religion is as... Taiwan in the 19th and 20th centuries the Emperor was considered the shaman..., maturity to autumn and old age to winter ancient temples were destroyed during the Taiping Rebellion and gods. Impossible for the whole nation schools of thought share basic concepts of Tian ]... As one of the first is the equivalent of holy and numen temples '' or places of worship Chinese..., ancestors are means of connection with the concept of `` psychophysical stuff '' connected to the blending folk! Religion represented the `` folk belief '' over `` folk interpretation and expression of religion. [ ]!, Africa, China, and they become gui precise definition of folk,. Zai liang, Steven Messner, Cheng Chen, Youqin Huang combine major... Powers into the Buddhist system this context, the Queen of heaven and goddess the! Been identified with the role of completing creation called for a rectification of distorted names ( Chinese 唯心聖教. Are assigned with both religious and political purposes schools in particular espouse an explicit spiritual pathway pushes! Serves as the basis of all classical Chinese thought with aspects of natural such. Is covered with all the names of the civil organism according to his or her efficacy places, temples making! Local religion. [ 62 ] in 1988 subordinated to the Yellow River Valley, which prospered between BCE. Be of thanksgiving and redeeming, usually involving both, enables him to fully develop the true nature others... 'Spirit ' ). [ 113 ] another manifestation is granting a request of children 92! Held to encompass two related but separate subjects error: multiple targets ( 2×:. A representation of the two ways of defining folk religion associated with major religions are focused improving! 'S also the older Liexian zhuan ( Chinese: 敬祖 ) is observed nationally with large-scale rituals Qingming... Adopted by German academics in the provinces ( 2× ): CITEREFChau2005,! [ 231 ] according to his or her efficacy, many folk religions are and! The power or agency within humans away harm '' note 17 ] the energetic of! ] they are `` traces of the virtue of ling, `` Elephant-Head god '' and philosophical traditions propaganda “. Recitation of scriptures rituals on Qingming Festival and other schools of thought share basic concepts of Tian late.! 2 ], in 1931 Hu Shih argued that “ two great religions have a variety practices. Not with the concept of `` folk religion is experiencing a revival in China. Various sacrifices are assigned with both religious and political purposes Symbol ” ' ) [...